Over the course of the next couple of years training with power became more popular with devices being more widely used in the amateur ranks. The community around the project grew and in 2010 as Sean stopped racing competively he handed over leadership of the project to Mark Liversedge.
Slow-twitch fibres contain a high number of mitochondria; often referred to as cellular power-plants. They 'generate' energy on demand in that complex 10-step process mentioned above (its actually called The Krebs Cycle). In contrast, fast-twitch muscles contain far fewer mitochondria and instead have greater stores of glycogen and the enzymes needed to to produce energy without oxygen. As a result, slow-twitch muscles are fuelled primarily from fat at endurance intensities, but will utilise glycogen at tempo and higher intensities. IIa are fuelled primarily from glycogen but can utilise fat whilst those strong and quick IIx/d only use glycogen.
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For those that don't own a gas exhange analyzer, HR may be an alternative way of tracking changes. There have been numerous studies that show that HR and oxygen consumption are closely correlated; so it is potentially viable to monitor average power to average HR ratios to track trends in aerobic fitness over time. But take care as HR can fluctuate day to day depending upon hydration, caffeine, sleep and other factors.
The cause for this is not really known for sure. It could be caused by the gradual recruitment of fast-twitch fibres as slow-twitch fibres fatigue; as we run out of slow-twitchers the brain uses more and more fast-twitch muscles to maintain the same power. But those fast-twitch muscles need more oxygen to generate the same power. So slowly, our oxygen uptake increases.
Regardless of this, stroke volume is most definitely improved with aerobic training; the size of the ventricles will increase with the right training, and as they become thicker and stronger they make larger and more powerful contractions. In cycling power terms that means we will see power output increase at the same heartrate as more blood is pumped with each beat.
Use of this data to assess training and development is an exciting new development that may yield entirely new training and analysis methods in the very near future. For example; there is a direct relationship between oxygen extraction at the muscle and the Lactate Turn Point; we could use data collected from an NIRS device with a power meter during an incremental ramp test to pinpoint power at MLSS with some precision. This could provide a reliable and accurate protocol for establishing CP and FTP.
This means that if we want to use power output as a measure of training stress we will also need to translate those simplistic power readings into something that reflects the associated physiological processes and their half-lives.
Given that work in joules can be calculated by multiplying power by time it is very tempting to use this to measure the stress of a ride. But as we get stronger and more efficient those joules become easier to produce, and thus the training stress accrued in the workout should reflect that.
The PMC is claimed to address a number of shortcomings of the Banister IR model that; (1) it is not tied to physiology (2) it assumes there is no upper limit to performance (3) fitting model parameters every 60-90 days requires valid data to model against (4) it is over parameterised (5) these parameters can vary by individual, intensity and sport. It is debatable whether these perceived shortcomings have any material impact on the utility of the IR model or if they are addressed by the PMC. But it is clear that the PMC has been embraced by the cycling community and has been instrumental in providing a means for the layman (and many professional coaches) to adopt an IR approach to managing their training. It is often described as the most important tool for the cyclist lucky enough to own a power meter.
Given we spend so much effort pushing air out of the way it should come as no surprise that the density of the air ( Rho ) can make a massive difference to how fast we go for any given power output. Air gets thinner as you go to altitude, its why hour records might be attempted there (lets ignore the fact there is also less air to breath). Aside from altitude, air density is also affected by humidity, temperature and air pressure; we can calculate the air density if we have all three of these.
Remaining factors include; weight if you're riding on the flat or downhill then extra weight can be advantageous as momentum and gravity help you go faster; but as the road tilts upwards its gonna need more power to overcome. Typically, on a 2% slope an 80kg bike and rider will need 233w to maintain 25 km/h, every 1kg of weight extra costs another 2w to go the same speed. Similarly for 17km/h on 5% and 10km/h on 10% every kilo will take 2-3w of power to lift to the top.
And of course, wind is the most obvious problem. Riding with a 20 km/h headwind or sidewind is no fun; but riding with a 20km/h tailwind is great ! So windspeed and just as importantly wind direction ( yaw ) can have the biggest impact on how fast we can go for any given power. Lastly we have acceleration ; every time you speed up you use power to do that, unless you're rolling downhill.
Ultimately we all want to get faster on the bike. Assuming you have done all you can to shed unwanted pounds there really isn't much you can do to change the wind, air density the course profile or gravity. That leaves our tyres (Crr), bike and posture (CdA) to work on. To avoid spending lots of money on time in a wind-tunnel there is a practical approach called 'Virtual Elevation' (VE) devised by Dr Robert Chung that can be done outside using a power meter and speed sensor.
In the past, in order to test position and equipment and calculate our CdA we needed to know accurate values for; weight, speed, windspeed and yaw, power Crr, Rho, incline, gravity and acceleration. So a field test would typically be performed on a still day on a flat road; removing the need for the windspeed, yaw, incline and gravity terms. Then looking at speed for each run it would be possible to check if a position was faster or slower. But riding without wind and hills was almost impossible to do outside of a velodrome. And even then velodromes have problems because (believe it or not) riding around the track you (and others there at the same time) will create your own tailwind !
The single most important thing we do is to run multiple loops on the same course with a power meter; every run will have the same overall elevation change (none), same distance and experience the same environmental conditions whilst the power output and speed will vary.
If we do this then the power we used for each lap was used to overcome; rolling resistance in the tyre (Crr)
elevation changes (slope changes)
accelerations (speed changes)
air resistance (CdA)
Photoshop can also create and use files with the extension .PSB, which stands for "Photoshop Big" (also known as "large document format").[20] A PSB file extends the PSD file format, increasing the maximum height and width to 300,000 pixels and the length limit to around 4 Exabytes. The dimension limit was apparently chosen arbitrarily by Adobe, not based on computer arithmetic constraints (it is not close to a power of two, as is 30,000) but for ease of software testing. PSD and PSB formats are documented.[21]
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